Informed consent is the process by which researchers ensure that individuals understand a study and voluntarily agree to participate. In the context of psychology research, informed consent means that every participant consents freely and with full information before any data is collected.
This involves providing potential participants with clear details about the study’s purpose, procedures, duration, potential benefits, and any risks or discomfort that might be involved.
True informed consent also requires that participants have the capacity to consent (e.g. they are of sound mind or appropriate age) and that their agreement is given without any form of coercion or undue influence.
The importance of informed consent in ethical research cannot be overstated. It upholds the principle of respect for persons – honoring individuals’ autonomy, privacy, and dignity
By being transparent about what participation entails, researchers build trust and protect participants from harm.
In fact, modern ethical codes (from documents like the Nuremberg Code to today’s professional guidelines) insist on “sufficient knowledge and comprehension” on the part of participants before they consent to research.
Key Criteria
Researchers must give participants enough information about the study so they can make an informed choice.
Psychologists inform participants about:
- The purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures involved: For example, participants should know what the study is examining, what tasks they will do, and approximately how long it will take.
- Voluntary participation: People can withdraw or modify their consent during the data collection phase and even request their data to be destroyed, within the limits of the study’s design.
Researchers should communicate if there are any time limits on withdrawal (for example, a date after which data will be anonymized and cannot be removed) as part of the consent process.
- The foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing: If leaving a study early might have any effects (perhaps on compensation or if it’s a treatment study, on their healthcare), these should be explained.
In most minimal-risk psychology studies, the consequences are simply that their data won’t be used, but APA wants participants informed of any implications.
- Risks and benefits: Participants must be made aware of any potential risks, discomforts, or adverse effects of the research, as well as any potential benefits.
If the study involves sensitive topics or invasive procedures, this is highlighted so participants know what to expect.
Researchers must be frank about things like “Some questions may be personal or could cause minor emotional discomfort” or “You may feel bored or fatigued during the task,” etc., as applicable.
- Limits of confidentiality: Participants should be informed about how their data will be kept confidential.
They need to know who will have access to their information, how it will be stored, and whether it will be anonymized (e.g., under code numbers, not names).
- Incentives for participation: If participants will receive any compensation, payment, course credit, or gift for taking part, the consent must state this. Incentives should not be coercive.
- Whom to contact for questions: Participants are provided with contact information for the researcher (and typically the Institutional Review Board as well) so they can ask any questions about the research or their rights.
How Researchers Obtain Informed Consent
Before You Begin: Familiarize yourself with the ethical guidelines relevant to your location and research area.
- United States: Psychologists adhere to the ethical standards outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA) when conducting research.
- United Kingdom: Researchers follow the British Psychological Society (BPS) ethical guidelines when obtaining informed consent.
- Australia: Psychologists adhere to the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2023), which took effect in January 2024.
- Canada: The Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCPS 2) .
- Your Institution’s Research Ethics Board (REB) or Institutional Review Board (IRB): They provide oversight and approval for research projects.
1. Information Sheet
This participant information sheet provides comprehensive details about the study. It should include:
- Title of the Study: Clearly state the title of the research project.
- Researcher’s Contact Information: Provide the names and affiliations of the researchers involved.
- Purpose of the Research: Explain in clear, concise language what the study is about and what the researchers hope to learn.
- Procedures: Detail what participants will be asked to do during the study. This includes the types of activities, the duration of each activity, and the overall time commitment.
- Location: Where will the research take place?
- Potential Risks and Discomforts: Describe any potential physical, psychological, social, or economic risks or discomforts that participants might experience. Be honest and upfront about any potential for harm, even if it is minimal.
- Potential Benefits: Explain any potential benefits of participating in the research. These benefits may be direct (e.g., receiving a treatment) or indirect (e.g., contributing to scientific knowledge). If there are no direct benefits to the participant, state that clearly.
- Confidentiality: Explain how you will protect participants’ data and privacy.
- How data will be stored (e.g., securely, with identifying information removed).
- Who will have access to the data.
- How data will be used and reported (e.g., aggregated, anonymized).
- If applicable, mention any legal limits to confidentiality (e.g., mandatory reporting of child abuse).
- Voluntary Participation and Withdrawal: Emphasize that participation is entirely voluntary, and they can withdraw at any time without penalty.
- Incentives: If offering any compensation or rewards, describe them clearly.
- Contact Information: Provide contact information for the researcher(s), including names, email addresses, and phone numbers. Provide contact information for the relevant ethics committee or Institutional Review Board (IRB).
2. Consent Form
This is a separate document that participants sign to indicate their agreement. It should include:
- A statement confirming they have read and understood the information sheet.
- A statement confirming their voluntary consent to participate.
- Space for the participant’s signature and date.
- Space for the researcher’s (or witness’s) signature and date.
3. Obtaining Consent
- Provide Adequate Time: Give participants sufficient time to read the information sheet and ask questions.
- Explain and Clarify: Be prepared to answer questions and explain any aspect of the study in more detail.
- Ensure Comprehension: Make sure participants understand what they are agreeing to. The consent form should be written in clear, concise, and easy-to-understand language. Avoid jargon or technical terms.
- Respect Autonomy: Emphasize that participation is voluntary and there are no negative consequences for declining or withdrawing.
- Document Consent: Obtain written consent by having participants sign the consent form. Keep a copy for your records and provide a copy to the participant.
Ongoing Consent and Debriefing
- Re-Consent: If new information arises during the study that might affect a participant’s willingness to continue, re-consent them.
- Debriefing: At the end of the study, debrief participants, especially if deception was used. Explain the true purpose of the study, answer questions, and address any concerns.
Record Keeping
- Maintain Records: Keep records of all consent procedures, including dates, times, and any communication with participants.
- Store Consent Forms Securely: Protect participants’ privacy by storing consent forms in a safe and confidential manner, complying with data protection regulations.
Special Considerations
Minors:
Obtain consent from parents or legal guardians, and assent (agreement) from the minor.
In the UK, people under 18 years old are considered minors who may not fully legally consent on their own.
The BPS guidelines indicate that young people aged 16-17 can potentially give consent for low-risk research if they are judged competent.
For children under 16, a parent or legal guardian must provide consent on the child’s behalf, and the child should also assent (agree) to participate as far as they are able.
Assent means the study is explained to the child in age-appropriate terms and the child willingly agrees, even though legally the parent’s consent is required.
Researchers need to take special care to ensure a child’s agreement is truly voluntary. The BPS Code notes the power imbalance between adults and children – children might feel they have to say yes, especially in settings like schools where obedience to adults is the norm.
To combat this, researchers can emphasize that saying “no” is okay and there will be no bad consequences for the child.
For example, the person obtaining consent might explicitly give the child a few chances to decline (“It’s okay if you don’t want to — you can say no”) and watch for any signs of discomfort.
Best practice is that if a child does not want to take part, that decision is respected even if a parent has consented; the child’s dissent “trumps” a parent’s wish to enroll them.
In school-based research, researchers often seek the head teacher’s permission and notify parents (passive consent) in addition to getting the children’s active assent, depending on the nature of the activity.
Deception:
Researchers cannot deceive participants about research that is expected to cause pain or severe emotional distress – in other words, you cannot mislead someone into a study that will seriously harm them.
When deception or withholding of information does occur, the consent process is a bit different: participants give consent to participate without full knowledge of some details.
This is sometimes called consent to incomplete disclosure. Importantly, the BPS requires that the study protocol involving deception be approved by an ethics committee, and that there are plans to fully debrief participants afterwards.
During debriefing, researchers reveal any withheld information or deception, explain why it was necessary, and address any of the participants’ questions or concerns.
Participants should leave the study without feeling harmed or betrayed.
While the BPS code doesn’t explicitly state it, a common practice (and certainly an expectation in APA and other guidelines) is that after being debriefed, participants are given the opportunity to withdraw their data if they object to the deception.
In essence, even in studies that involve deception, informed consent is treated as an ongoing process.
Participants might not have all the facts at the start, but they are informed at the earliest feasible time and retain the right to decide what happens with their data once the truth is revealed.
Students, clients, or employees as participants:
Psychology researchers often recruit students (e.g. university participant pools) or even their own clients in some applied research.
Researchers should avoid putting people in a position where they feel pressured to consent because of a power relationship.
One safeguard is to have someone independent conduct the recruitment and consent process so participants don’t feel their academic or professional standing is at stake.
If participation is a course requirement or opportunity for credit (which sometimes happens in university psychology courses), alternative options should be offered so that students can fulfill requirements without feeling forced into a particular study.
Adults unable to consent:
If a participant has an impairment that limits their capacity to give informed consent (for instance, an adult with a severe intellectual disability or someone temporarily incapacitated), UK researchers must follow legal frameworks such as the Mental Capacity Act.
Typically, a legal representative or guardian would provide consent, and the individual would still be involved as much as possible in the decision (similar to the assent process for minors).
The BPS emphasizes that researchers should be particularly diligent in establishing valid consent in any dependent or unequal relationship meaning if participants depend on the researcher or others (e.g. patients, prisoners), extra care must be taken to ensure no coercion.
Intervention research:
If a psychology study is also a form of treatment or intervention (say, testing a new therapy), participants need to be told extra details.
These include: the experimental nature of the treatment, whether the control group will get some treatment or not, how assignment to groups will occur (randomization, etc.), what alternative treatments are available if they don’t participate, and any compensation or costs involved.
This is to mirror the kind of consent one gives in a clinical trial – ensuring patients know what happens if they don’t receive the experimental treatment.
Longitudinal studies:
Prolonged engagement studies involve researchers spending an extended period in the field, often immersed in the participants’ environment, and require continuous attention to informed consent.
Start with comprehensive initial consent, explaining the study’s evolving nature and ensuring participant understanding. Maintain ongoing consent through regular check-ins and open communication, addressing any emerging questions or concerns.
Re-consent participants if the study design or procedures change significantly. Always respect participant autonomy, allowing withdrawal at any time.
Be mindful of power dynamics and prioritize participant well-being, privacy, and confidentiality throughout the research process.
Recording voices or images:
You may require separate informed consent for recordings (audio or video) unless an exception applies.
This means if a study is video-taping or audio-recording participants (e.g. by interview), the consent form must explicitly mention this and participants should consent to being recorded.
The exceptions are: (1) if the research is purely naturalistic observation in a public place and the recordings won’t be used in a way that could harm or identify anyone, or (2) if the study involves deception and participants are unaware of the recording at first, in which case they must be informed and consent to the use of their recording during the debrief (i.e., after the fact).
For example, if a researcher covertly videotapes behavior in a public park as part of an experiment, they would need to destroy any footage of anyone who later does not consent when debriefed.
Generally, U.S. researchers take care to get explicit consent for recordings upfront whenever possible (“Is it okay if we audio-record this interview? Please sign here if yes”).
