Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) can drive people to constantly check social media to stay updated on others’ lives.
This urge to stay connected can become compulsive, leading to problematic social media use—where users feel unable to disconnect despite negative impacts on their well-being.
Elhai, J. D., Casale, S., & Bond, R. A. (2025). FOMO’s apprehension of missing out and constant connection desire dimensions differentially correlate with problematic smartphone and social media use, but not with depression or generalized anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 114, 103037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2025.103037
Key Points
- Focus: This study explored whether FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) is better understood as two separate psychological experiences and how each relates to depression, anxiety, and problematic smartphone/social media use.
- Method: The researchers used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on survey data from U.S. college students and Italian adults to test a two-part FOMO model and examine how these dimensions relate to mental health and tech overuse.
- Findings: The “constant connection desire” part of FOMO was more strongly linked to problematic smartphone and social media use than the “apprehension of missing out” part. Both FOMO dimensions were equally related to depression and anxiety.
- Implications: Understanding FOMO as two distinct dimensions can help psychologists better assess risk for digital overuse and tailor interventions that address the emotional and behavioral sides of FOMO differently.
Rationale
What is FOMO?
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) refers to the anxious feeling that others might be enjoying rewarding experiences without us and the compulsion to stay constantly connected.
It’s often driven by unmet social needs and is known to contribute to problematic internet and social media behaviors.
What’s already known?
Previous studies have shown that FOMO is linked with excessive use of smartphones and social media, and with mental health symptoms like depression and anxiety. However, most research treats FOMO as a single experience.
What gap does this study address?
This paper investigates whether FOMO can be broken down into two dimensions: (1) Apprehension of Missing Out—an emotional worry about missing out on experiences, and (2) Constant Connection Desire—a behavioral urge to stay in the loop through constant online engagement.
Why does this matter?
Clarifying the structure of FOMO can improve how we measure it and allow mental health professionals to distinguish between the emotional roots of anxiety about missing out and the behaviors that may be fueling excessive internet use. This could lead to better diagnostics and more effective interventions.
Method
This was a cross-sectional survey study using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test different models of FOMO and assess how FOMO dimensions relate to problematic internet use and emotional distress.
Sample
- U.S. Sample: 326 college students (62.5% female), average age ~20 years, predominantly White, with Hispanic, Black, and Asian representation.
- Italian Sample: 433 adult social media users (74.1% female), average age ~27 years.
Variables
- Independent Variable:
Two proposed FOMO dimensions:- Apprehension of Missing Out
- Constant Connection Desire
- Dependent Variables:
- Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU)
- Problematic Social Media Use (PSMU)
- Depression symptoms
- Generalized anxiety symptoms
Procedure
- Participants were recruited online (U.S.: university pool; Italy: social media).
- After giving consent, they completed a demographic survey.
- Then they filled out validated questionnaires on FOMO, social media use, smartphone use, depression, and anxiety.
- Responses were analyzed using CFA to test how well a two-dimensional FOMO model fit compared to a one-dimensional model.
- Correlations between the FOMO factors and mental health or behavioral variables were examined.
Measures
- FOMO Scale (Przybylski et al., 2013):
Assesses feelings of missing out and desire to stay connected. Items were grouped into the two hypothesized dimensions.- Why used: Widely validated and used in FOMO research.
- Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (Andreassen et al., 2016):
Measures problematic social media use.- Why used: Strong psychometric support, targets PSMU directly.
- Smartphone Addiction Scale–Short Version (Kwon et al., 2013):
Measures problematic smartphone behavior.- Why used: Validated tool for identifying excessive smartphone use.
- Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9):
Assesses depressive symptoms.- Why used: Widely used clinical tool with strong reliability.
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7):
Assesses generalized anxiety symptoms.- Why used: Validated measure of anxiety relevant to FOMO concerns.
Statistical Measures
- Used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the structure of the FOMO scale.
- Wald chi-square tests were used to compare strength of correlations between FOMO factors and other outcomes.
- Fit indices (e.g., CFI, TLI, RMSEA) evaluated model quality.
- Ordinal data were analyzed using weighted least squares estimation.
- Invariance testing assessed whether results held across U.S. and Italian samples.
Results
- The two-factor model of FOMO fit better than a one-factor model in both U.S. and Italian samples, though differences in fit were modest.
- Problematic social media use (PSMU) was more strongly associated with constant connection desire than with apprehension of missing out in both samples.
- In the U.S. sample:
- Problematic smartphone use (PSU) was also more strongly linked to constant connection desire.
- Depression and generalized anxiety were equally related to both FOMO dimensions.
- Italian participants interpreted some FOMO items differently, indicating cultural variation in how FOMO is experienced.
Insight
This study helps clarify that FOMO is not a single experience but likely consists of at least two components:
- One is emotional—worrying about being left out.
- The other is behavioral—a compulsive drive to stay online and connected.
The stronger link between constant connection desire and problematic technology use supports the idea that people may use social media as a coping mechanism for their anxiety about missing out.
This aligns with theories of safety behaviors and maladaptive internet cognition—where staying connected becomes a way to manage emotional discomfort.
The fact that both FOMO dimensions were equally associated with depression and anxiety suggests that feeling left out and staying constantly connected may both reflect or reinforce general emotional distress.
This dual structure also fits into broader psychological models like the I-PACE model, which explains how personality, affect, cognition, and executive function interact in technology overuse.
Clinical Implications
- Tailored Interventions:
Clinicians can focus on different aspects of FOMO:- For those high in apprehension, cognitive-behavioral strategies to address exclusion-related worries may help.
- For those high in connection desire, behavioral strategies like digital detoxes or connection boundaries may be more effective.
- Assessment:
Mental health assessments should measure both dimensions of FOMO separately to better understand a client’s technology use behaviors. - Prevention in Young Adults:
Since college students are particularly vulnerable, educational programs could help them recognize and manage FOMO-related behaviors before they escalate. - Challenges:
- People may resist reducing their screen time due to social pressures.
- Distinguishing between healthy connection and compulsive checking isn’t always easy.
Strengths
- Cross-cultural approach: Used both American and Italian samples to test generalizability.
- Robust statistical analysis: Employed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), a more rigorous approach than previous studies using exploratory methods.
- Clear measurement strategy: Separated emotional and behavioral aspects of FOMO using validated scales.
- Multiple mental health outcomes measured: Included depression, anxiety, smartphone, and social media use.
Limitations
- Cross-sectional design: Cannot determine whether FOMO causes anxiety or if anxiety increases FOMO.
- Self-report bias: All data were collected through surveys, which can be influenced by how people perceive and report their experiences.
- Cultural differences in interpretation: Italian and American participants understood some FOMO items differently, affecting comparability.
- Time frame mismatch: Some surveys were adapted to cover the past month rather than their original time frames, possibly affecting responses.
- Didn’t assess rumination or worry specifically: These might better capture how FOMO relates to negative thinking patterns.
Socratic Questions
- Why do you think people might experience both anxiety about missing out and an urge to constantly check social media? Are these feelings driven by the same need?
- How might FOMO contribute to the development of problematic technology use over time?
- What role do social or cultural values play in shaping how people experience FOMO?
- Could someone have high connection desire without feeling apprehension of missing out? What might that look like in everyday life?
- How could a clinician use this two-part model of FOMO in therapy with a teenager struggling with screen overuse?
- Do you think social media platforms intentionally exploit FOMO to keep users engaged? If so, how?
- How might measuring FOMO differently (as two dimensions) change research conclusions or public health strategies?
- Can you think of adaptive ways to stay connected that don’t involve constant social media use?
- What alternative explanations might there be for the link between FOMO and anxiety or depression?
- How could future research better test whether FOMO causes emotional distress—or the other way around?
